Among many English expressions that are likely to offend those of us whose ancestry may be traced to the Far East, two stand out quite menacingly for me: Oriental poker face and idiotic Asian smile. The former refers to the supposedly inscrutable nature of a facial expression that apparently reflects no particular state of mind, while the latter pokes fun at a face fixed with a perpetually friendly smile. Westerners' perplexity, when faced with either, arises from the impression
that these two diametrically opposed masquerading strategies prevent them from extracting useful information-the type of information which at least they could process with a reasonable measure of confidence-about the feelings of the person before them. An Asian face that projects no signs of emotion, then, seems to most westerners nothing but a facade. It does not matter whether that face wears an unsightly scowl or a shining ray; a facial expression they cannot interpret poses a genuine threat.
Compassionate and sympathetic to their perplexity as I may be, I am also insulted by the Western insensitivity to the significant roles that subtle signs play in Asian cultures. Every culture has its unique set of modus operandifor communication. Western culture, for example, apparently emphasizes the importance of direct communication. Not only are the communicators taught to look directly at each other when they convey a message, but they are also encouraged to come right to the point of the message. Making bold statements or asking frank questions in a less than diplomatic manner (i.e.: That was really a very stupid thing to do! or Are you interested in me?) is rarely construed as rude or indiscreet. Even embarrassingly blunt questions such as Senator Hart, have you ever had sexual intercourse with anyone other than your wife? are tolerated most of the time. Asians, on the other hand, find this direct communicative style quite unnerving. In many social interaction situations, they avoid direct eye contact. They see each other without necessarily looking directly at each other, and they gather information about inner states of mind without asking even the most discreet or understated questions. Many times they talk around the main topic and, yet, succeed remarkably well in understanding one another's position. (At least they believe they have developed a reasonably clear understanding.)
To a great extent, Asian communication is listeningcentered; the ability to listen (and a special talent for detecting various communicative cues) is treated as equally important as, if not more important than, the ability to speak. This contrasts clearly with the American style of communication that puts the utmost emphasis on verbal expression; the speaker carries most of the burden for ensuring that everyone understands his or her message. An Asian listener, however, is prone to blame himself or herself for failing to reach a cornprehensive understanding from the few words and gestures performed by the speaker. With this heavier burden placed on the listener, an Asian speaker does not feel obliged to sendclearly discernible message cues (at least not nearly so much as he or she is obliged to do in American cultural contexts). Not obligated to express themselves without interruption, Asians use silence as a tool in communication. Silence, by most Western conventions, represents discontinuity of communication, and creates a feeling of discomfort and anxiety. In the Orient, however, silence is not only comfortably tolerated but is considered a desirable form of expression. Far from being a sign of displeasure or animosity, it serves as an integral part of the communication process, used for reflecting upon messages previously exchanged and for carefully crafting thoughts before uttering them.
It is not outlandish at all, then, for Asians to view Americans as unnecessarily talkative and lacking in the ability to simply listen. For the Asian, it is the American who projects a mask of confidence by being overly expressive both verbally and nonverbally. Since the American style of communication places less emphasis on the act of listening than on speaking, Asians suspect that their American counterparts fail to pick up subtle and astute communicative signs in conversation. To a cultural outlook untrained in reading those signs, an inscrutable face represents no more than a menacing or amusing mask.
As the opening profile suggests, communication is a critical factor in the cross- cultural management issues discussed in this book, particularly those of an interpersonal nature, involving motivation, leadership, group interactions, and negotiation. Culture is conveyed and perpetuated through communication in one form or another. Culture and communication are so intricately intertwined that they are, essentially, synonymous.3 By understanding this relationship, managers can move toward constructive intercultural management.
Communication, whether in the form of writing, talking, listening, or through the Internet, is an inherent part of a manager's role and takes up the majority ofthe manager's time on the job. Studies by Mintzberg demonstrate the importance of oral communication; he found that most managers spend between 50 and 90 percent of their time talking to people.4 The ability of a manager to communicate effectively across cultural boundaries will largely determine the success of international business transactions or the output of a culturally diverse workforce. It is useful, then, to break down the elements involved in the communication process, both to understand the cross-cultural issues at stake and to maximize the process.
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