Now I have to stand firmly on my own and think for myself. I wish I had realized this earlier in life. . . . Building my life around the com pan was a big mistake. AKIO KUZUOKA, 40-YEAR EMPLOYEE AT A JAPANESE COMPANY, WALL STREET JOURNAL, DECEMBER 29, 2000. In 2002, we see evidence in cities of changes in Japan's business culture as a result of economic decline and global competition (discussed at the end of this section). However, the underlying cultural values still predominate-for now anyway.
Much of the Japanese culture, and the basis of working relationships, can be explained by the principle of wa, peace and harmony. This principle, embedded in the value they attribute to amae (indulgent love), probably originated in the Shinto religion, which focuses on spiritual and physical harmony. Amae results in shinyo, which refers to the mutual confidence, faith, and honor necessary for successful business relationships. Japan ranks high on pragmatism, masculinity and uncertainty avoidance, and fairly high on power distance. At the same time, much importance is attached to loyalty, empathy, and the guidance of subordinates. The result is a mix of authoritarianism and humanism in the workplace, similar to a family system. These cultural roots are evident in a very homogeneous managerial value system, with strong middle management, strong working relationships, strong seniority systems that stress rank, and an emphasis on looking after employees. The principle of wa carries forth into the work group-the building block of Japanese business. The Japanese strongly identify and thus seek to cooperate with their work groups. The emphasis is on participative management, consensus problem solving, and decision making with a patient, long-term perspective. Open expression or conflict is discouraged, and it is of paramount importance to avoid the shame of not fulfilling one's duty. These elements of work culture result in a devotion to work, collective responsibility, and a high degree of employee productivity.
If we extend this cultural profile to its implications for specific behaviors in the workplace, we can draw a comparison with common American behaviors. As shown in Exhibit 3-8, most of those behaviors seem to be opposite to those of their counterparts; it is no wonder that there are many misunderstandings and conflicts in the workplace between Americans and Japanese. For example, a majority of the attitudes and behaviors of many Japanese stems from a high level of collectivism, compared with a high level of individualism common to Americans. This contrast is highlighted in the center of Exhibit 3-8 by maintain the group, compared with protect the individual. In addition, the strict social order of the Japanese permeates the workplace in adherence to organizational hierarchy and seniority and in loyalty to the firm. This contrasts markedly with the typical American responses to organizational relationships and duties based on equality. In addition, the often blunt, outspoken American businessperson offends the indirectness and sensitivity of the Japanese for whom the virtue of patience is paramount, causing the silence and avoidance that so frustrates Americans.37 As a result, Japanese businesspeople tend to think of American organizations as having no spiritual quality and little employee loyalty, and of Americans as assertive, frank, and egotistic. Their American counterparts, in turn, respond with the impression that Japanese businesspeople have little experience and are secretive, arrogant, and cautious.38
In 2002, however, anecdotal evidence indicates that some convergence with western business culture is taking place-resulting from Japan's economic contraction and subsequent bankruptcies. Focus on the group, lifetime employment and a pension, have given way to a more competitive business environment, with job security no longer guaranteed, and an emphasis on performance-based pay. This has led Japan's salarymen to recognize the need for personal responsibility on the job and in their lives. While only a few years ago emphasis was on the group, Japan's long slump seems to be causing some cultural restructuring of the individual. Corporate Japan is changing from a culture of consensus and group think, to touting the need for an era of personal responsibility as a solution to revitalize their competitive position in the global marketplace.39
To tell you the truth, it's hard to think for yourself, says Mr. Kuzuoka [but, if you don't] . . . in this age of cutthroat competition, you'll just end up drowning.40
Germany The reunited Germany is naturally fairly culturally diverse, as the country borders several nations. Generally, Germans rank quite high on Hofstede's dimension of individualism, though their behaviors seem less individu Par alistic than those of Americans. They score fairly high on uncertainty avoidance and masculinity, and have a relatively small need for power distance. These cultural norms show up in the Germans' preference for being around familiar people and situations; also in their propensity to do a detailed evaluation of business deals before committing themselves.
Christianity underlies much of German culture-over 96 percent of Germans are Catholics or Protestants. This may be why Germans tend to like rule and order in their lives, and why there is a clear public expectation of the acceptable and the unacceptable way to do things. Public signs everywhere in Germany dictate what is allowed or verboten (forbidden). Germans are very strict with their use of time, whether for business or pleasure, frowning on inefficiency or on tardiness. In business, Germans tend to be assertive, but they downplay aggression. Decisions are not as centralized as one would expect, with hierarchical processes often giving way to consensus decision making. However, there is strict departmentalization in organizations, with centralized and final authority at the departmental manager level. Hall and Hall describe the German preference for closed doors and private space as evidence of the affinity for compartmentalization in organizations and in their own lives. They also prefer more physical space around them in conversation than do most other Europeans, and privacy in aural distance. In fact, German law prohibits loud noises in public areas on weekend afternoons. Germans are conservative, valuing privacy, politeness, and formality; they usually use last names and titles for all except those close to them.
In negotiations, Germans want detailed information before and during discussions, which can become lengthy. Factors such as voice and speech control are given much weight. But, since Germany is a low-context society, communication is explicit and Americans find negotiations easy to understand.41
Korea Koreans rank high on collectivism and pragmatism, fairly low on masculinity, moderate on power distance, and quite high on uncertainty avoidance. Although greatly influenced by American culture, Koreans are still very much bound to the traditional Confucian teachings of spiritualism and collectivism. Korea and its people have undergone great changes, but the respect for family, authority, formality, class, and rank remain strong. Koreans are quite aggressive and hard-working, demonstrative, friendly, and very hospitable. For the most part, they do not subscribe to participative management. Family and personal relationships are important, and connections are vital for business introductions and transactions. Business is based on honor and trust; most contracts are oral. While achievement and competence are important to Koreans, a driving force in relationships is the priority of guarding both parties' social and professional reputations. Thus, praise predominates, and honest criticism is rare.
Further insight into the differences between American and Korean culture can be derived from the following excerpted letter from Professor Jin K. Kim in Plattsburgh, New York, to his high school friend, MK, in South Korea, who just returned from a visit to the United States. MK, whom Dr. Kim had not seen for 20 years, is planning to emigrate to the United States, and Dr. Kim wants to help ward off his 'friend's culture shock by telling him about American culture from a Korean perspective.
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