Communication in organizations varies according to where and how it originates, the channels and the speed at which it flows, whether it is formal or informal, and so forth. The type of organizational structure, the staffing policies, and the leadership style will affect the nature of an organization's information system.
As an international manager, it is useful to know where and how information originates and the speed at which it flows, both internally and externally. In centralized organizational structures, as in South America, most information originates from top managers. Workers take less responsibility to keep managers informed than in a typical company in the United States, where delegation resuits in information flowing from the staff to the managers. In a decision-making system where many people are involved, such as the ringi system (a consultative, bottom-up approval system) in Japan there is a systematic pattern for information flow that the expatriate needs to understand.
Context also affects information flow. In high-context cultures (such as in the Middle East), information spreads rapidly and freely because of the constant close contact and the implicit ties among people and organizations. Information flow is often informal. In low-context cultures (such as Germany or the United States), information is controlled and focused, and thus it does not flow so freely. Compartmentalized roles and office layouts stifle information channels; information sources tend to be more formal.
It is crucial for an expatriate manager to find out how to tap into a firm's informal sources of information. In Japan, employees usually have a drink together on the way home from work, and this becomes an essential source of information. However, such communication networks are based on long-term relationships in Japan (and in other high-context cultures). The same information may not be readily available to outsiders. A considerable barrier in Japan separates strangers from familiar friends, a situation that discourages communication.
Americans are more open and talk freely about almost anything, whereas Japanese will disclose little about their inner thoughts or private issues. Americans are willing to have a wide public self, disclosing their inner reactions verbally and physically. In contrast, the Japanese prefer to keep their responses largely to their private self. The Japanese expose only a small portion of their thoughts; they reduce, according to Barniund, the unpredictability and emotional intensity of personal encounters. Barnlund depicts this difference diagrammatically, as shown in Exhibit 4-6, which illustrates the cultural clash between the public and private selves in intercultural communication between Americans and Japanese. The plus and minus signs indicate the areas of agreement or disagreement (respectively) resulting when each party forces its cultural norms of communication on the other. In the American style, the American's cultural norms of explicit communication impose on the Japanese by invading the person's private self. The Japanese style of implicit communication causes a negative reaction from the American because of what is perceived as too much formality and ambiguity, which wastes time.
Cultural variables in information systems and context underlie the many differences in communication style between Japanese and Americans. Exhibit 4-7 shows some specific differences. The Japanese ningensei (human being- ness) style of communication refers to their preference for humanity, reciprocity, a receiver orientation, and an underlying distrust of words and analytic logic. The Japanese believe that true intentions are not readily revealed in words or contracts, but are in fact masked by them. In contrast to the typical American's verbal agility and explicitness, Japanese behaviors and communications are directed to defend and give face for everyone concerned; to do so they avoid public disagreements at all costs. In cross-cultural negotiations this last point is essential.
The speed with which we try to use information systems is another key variable that needs attention to avoid misinterpretation and conflict. Americans expect to give and receive information very quickly and clearly, moving through details and stages in a linear fashion to the conclusion. They usually use various media for fast messages-letters giving all the facts and plans up front, faxes, and familiar relationships. In contrast, the French use the slower message channels of deep relationships, culture, and sometimes mediators to exchange information. A French written communication will be tentative, with subsequent letters slowly building up to a new proposal. In fact, the French preference for written communication, even for informal interactions, echoes the formality of their relationships-and results in a slowing down of message transmission that often seems unnecessary to Americans. Jean-Louis Reynal, a plant manager at Citroen, explains that it wouldn't be too much of an exaggeration to say that, until they are written, untilthey are entrusted to the blackboard, the notepad, or the flip chart, ideas have no reality for the French manager. You could even say that writing is an indispensable aid to 'being' for us.
In short, it behooves Americans to realize that, because most of the world exchanges information through slower message media, it is wise to schedule more time for transactions, develop patience, and learn to get at needed information in more subtle ways-after building rapport and taking time to observe the local system for exchanging information.
We have seen that cross-cultural misinterpretation can result from noise in the actual transmission of the message-the choice or speed of media. Interpreting the meaning of a message can thus be as much a function of the transmission channel (or medium) as it is of examining the message itself.
In formation Systems : Communication article from Comparative Management Catagory In formation Systems
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