Behavior that communicates without words (although it often is accompanied by words) is called nonverbal communication. People will usually believe what they see over what they hear-hence the expression, a picture is worth a thousand words. Studies show that these subtle messages account for between 65 and 93 percent of interpreted communication.22 Even minor variations in body language, speech rhythms, and punctuality, for example, often cause mistrust and misperception of the situation among cross-national parties.23 The media for such nonverbal communication can be categorized into four types: (1. kinesic behavior, (2. proxemics, (3. paralanguage, and (4. object language.
The term kinesic behavior refers to body movements-posture, gestures, facial expressions, and eye contact. While such actions may be universal, their meaning often is not. Because kinesic systems of meaning are culturally specific and learned, they cannot be generalized across cultures. Most people in the West would not correctly interpret many Chinese facial expressions; sticking out the tongue expresses surprise, a widening of the eyes shows anger, and scratching the ears and cheeks indicates happiness.24 Research has shown for some time, however, that most people worldwide can recognize displays of the basic emotions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise, and contempt.25'26
Many businesspeople and visitors react negatively to what they feel are inappropriate facial expressions, without understanding the cultural meaning behind them. In his studies of cross-cultural negotiations, Graham observed that the Japanese feel uncomfortable when faced with the Americans' eye-to-eye posture. They are taught since childhood to bow their heads out of humility, whereas the automatic response of Americans is look at me when I'm talking to you!27
Subtle differences in eye behavior (called oculesics) can throw off a communication badly if they are not understood. Eye behavior includes differences not only in eye contact but also in the use of eyes to convey other messages, whether or not that involves mutual gaze. Edward T. Hall, author of the classic The Silent Language, explains the differences in eye contact between the British and the Americans. During speech, Americans will look straight at you, while the British keep your attention by looking away. They will then look at you when they have finished speaking, which signals that it is your turn to talk. The implicit rationale for this is that you can't interrupt people when they are not looking at you.
It is helpful for American managers to be aware of the many cultural expectations regarding posture and how they may be interpreted. In Europe or Asia, relaxed posture in business meetings may be taken as bad manners or the result of poor upbringing. In Korea you are expected to sit upright, with feet squarely on the floor, and to speak slowly, showing a blending of body and spirit.
Managers can also familiarize themselves with the many different interpretations of hand and finger signals around the world, some of which may even represent obscene gestures. Of course, we cannot expect to change all of our ingrained, natural kinesic behavior, but we can be aware of what it means to others. And we can learn to understand the kinesic behavior of others and the role it plays in their society, as well as how it can affect business transactions. Misunderstanding the meanings of body movements-or an ethnocentric attitude toward the proper behavior-can have negative repercussions, as illustrated in the opening profile in this chapter.
Proxemics deals with the influence of proximity and space on communication-both personal space and office space or layout. Americans expect office layout to provide private space for each person, usually a larger and more private space as one goes up the hierarchy. In much of Asia, the custom is open office space, with people at all levels working and talking in close proximity to one another. Space communicates power in both Germany and the United States, evidenced by the desire for a corner office or one on the top floor. The importance of French officials, however, is made clear by a position in the middle of subordinates, communicating that they have a central position in an information network, where they can stay informed and in control.
Do you ever feel vaguely uncomfortable and start slowly moving backward when someone is speaking to you? This is because that person is invading your bubble-your personal space. Personal space is culturally patterned, and foreign spatial cues are a common source of misinterpretation. When someone seems aloof or pushy, it often means that she or he is operating under subtly different spacial rules.
Hall and Hall suggest that cultural differences affect the programming of the senses and that space, perceived by all the senses, is regarded as a form of territory to be protected. South Americans, southern and eastern Europeans, Indonesians, and Arabs are high-contact cultures, preferring to stand close, touch a great deal, and experience a close sensory involvement. On the other hand, North Americans, Asians, and northern Europeans are low-contact cultures and prefer much less sensory involvement, standing further apart and touching far less. They have a distant style of body language.
Interestingly, high-contact cultures are mostly located in warmer climates, and low-contact cultures in cooler climates. Americans are relatively nontouching, automatically standing at a distance so that an outstretched arm would touch the other person's ear. Standing any closer than that is regarded as invading intimate space. However, Americans and Canadians certainly expect a warm handshake and maybe a pat on the back for closer friends, though not the very warm double handshake of the Spaniards (clasping the forearm with the left hand). The Japanese, considerably less haptic (touching), do not shake hands; an initial greeting between a Japanese and a Spanish businessperson would be uncomfortable for both parties if they were untrained in cultural haptics.
When considering high- and low-contact cultures, we can trace a correlation between Hofstede's cultural variables of individualism and collectivism and the types of kinesic and proxemic behaviors people display. Generally, people from individualistic cultures are more remote and distant, whereas those from collectivist cultures are interdependent-they tend to work, play, live, and sleep in close proximity.
The term paralanguage refers to how something is said rather than the content-the rate of speech, the tone and inflection of voice, other noises, laughing, or yawning. The culturally aware manager learns how to interpret subtle differences in paralanguage, including silence. Silence is a powerful communicator. It may be a way of saying no, of being offended, or of waiting for more information to make a decision. There is considerable variation in the use of silence in meetings. While Americans get uncomfortable after 10 or 15 seconds of silence, Chinese prefer to think about the situation for over 30 seconds before speaking. The typical scenario between Americans and Chinese, then, is that the American gets impatient, says something to break the silence, and offends the Chinese by interrupting his chain of thought and comfort level with the subject.34 Graham, a researcher on international negotiations, taped a bargaining session held at Toyota's U.S. headquarters in California. The American executive had made a proposal to open a new production facility in Brazil and was waiting for a response from the three Japanese executives, who sat with lowered eyes and hands folded on the table. After about 30 seconds-an eternity to Americans, accustomed to a conversational response time of a few tenths of a second-the American blurted out that they were getting nowhere, and the meeting ended in a stalemate. More sensitivity to cultural differences in communication might have led him to wait longer or perhaps to prompt some further response through another polite question.
The term object language, or material culture, refers to how we communicate through material artifacts, whether architecture, office design and furniture, clothing, cars, or cosmetics. Material culture communicates what people hold as important. In Mexico, a visiting international executive or salesperson is advised to take time out, before negotiating business, to show appreciation for the surrounding architecture, which is prized by Mexicans.
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